## Elaborate Notes

**BACKGROUND OF MODERN CONCEPTS OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS**

*   **The Treaty of Westphalia (1648):** This was not a single treaty but a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in the Westphalian cities of Osnabrück and Münster. It marked the end of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) in the Holy Roman Empire and the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic.
    *   **Historical Context:** The wars were exceedingly destructive, fueled by religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants, and political struggles for dominance in Europe. The pre-Westphalian order was characterized by the overlapping authority of the Pope (religious) and the Holy Roman Emperor (temporal), with no clear concept of exclusive territorial rule.
    *   **Core Principles:** The treaty established the foundational principles of the modern state system. The most crucial was **Westphalian Sovereignty**, which encompasses:
        1.  **State Sovereignty:** The principle that each state has exclusive sovereignty over its territory.
        2.  **Legal Equality of States:** All states, regardless of size or power, are equal in international law.
        3.  **Non-intervention:** The principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of other sovereign states.
    *   **Scholarly View:** Scholars of the realist school, such as **Hans J. Morgenthau** in his seminal work *"Politics Among Nations"* (1948), view the Westphalian system as the birth of the anarchic international system where states are the primary actors, pursuing their national interests in a self-help environment.

**DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN POLICY**

**Economical Determinant of Foreign Policy**

*   Foreign policy is intrinsically linked to a nation's economic objectives, including trade promotion, securing energy resources, attracting foreign investment, and ensuring economic stability.
*   **The 1991 New Economic Policy (NEP):** Following a severe balance of payments crisis in 1991, India, under Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister Manmohan Singh, launched sweeping economic reforms (LPG: Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization). This was a major foreign policy shift.
    *   **Context:** Before 1991, India's economy was largely insulated, and its growth was modest, often termed the **"Hindu Rate of Growth"**—a term coined by economist **Raj Krishna** in 1978 to describe the slow average growth rate of 3.5% from the 1950s to the 1980s.
    *   **Impact on Foreign Policy:** The NEP necessitated a pragmatic foreign policy. India deepened ties with the West, particularly the USA ("Look East" policy was initiated in 1992, later becoming "Act East"), joined global economic forums like the WTO, and used economic diplomacy to achieve strategic goals.
*   **Economic Limits to Hegemony:** The 1971 war established India's military dominance in South Asia. However, as noted by strategic affairs expert **C. Raja Mohan**, sustained economic growth is essential to translate regional military power into global influence. Without a strong economic base, a nation cannot fund military modernization, project power, or offer attractive alternatives to its neighbours, which India struggled with for decades post-1971.
*   **Ukraine's Nuclear Disarmament:** After the USSR's collapse in 1991, Ukraine inherited the world's third-largest nuclear arsenal. Under the **Budapest Memorandum on Security Assurances (1994)**, Ukraine agreed to surrender these weapons to Russia in exchange for security assurances from Russia, the UK, and the USA respecting its independence and existing borders. The failure of these assurances in the face of Russian aggression in 2014 and 2022 serves as a stark example of how strategic economic and military decisions have long-term geopolitical consequences.

**Military Determinant of Foreign Policy**

*   A nation's military capability is a crucial tool for protecting its sovereignty, deterring aggression, and achieving foreign policy objectives.
*   **Operation Shakti (1998):** India conducted a series of five nuclear tests in Pokhran, Rajasthan, in May 1998. This made India an overt, de facto Nuclear Weapon State (NWS), though it is not a signatory to the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
    *   **Consequences and Recovery:** The tests initially led to international sanctions, primarily from the USA. However, India's growing economy and skilled diplomacy, led by then-Foreign Minister Jaswant Singh in talks with US Deputy Secretary of State Strobe Talbott, eventually transformed the relationship.
    *   **India-USA Strategic Partnership:** The recognition of India as a responsible nuclear power culminated in the **India-US Civil Nuclear Agreement (2008)**. This deal ended India's nuclear isolation and paved the way for a deep strategic partnership. Today, defence cooperation, evidenced by foundational agreements like LEMOA, COMCASA, and BECA, and joint military exercises (e.g., Malabar, Yudh Abhyas), forms a central pillar of India-US relations.

**Historical Determinant of Foreign Policy**

*   A nation's collective historical experience shapes its worldview, national identity, and foreign policy orientation.
*   **Anti-Colonial Legacy:** India's experience under British colonialism made it a natural leader of anti-colonial movements. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was a key architect of the **Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)**, formally established at the Belgrade Conference in 1961, which provided a platform for newly independent nations in Asia and Africa to assert their autonomy from the Cold War superpowers.
*   **Legacy of Partition (1947):** The violent partition of British India into India and Pakistan has left an indelible scar. It created territorial disputes (especially over Jammu and Kashmir), identity conflicts, and deep-seated mistrust. Scholar **Stephen P. Cohen** famously described the relationship as one of **"brother enemies"** in his book *"The Idea of Pakistan"* (2004), highlighting the shared heritage juxtaposed with intractable hostility. This historical baggage continues to define bilateral interactions and regional security dynamics.

**INDIA & THE NEIGHBORHOOD**

*   A stable and friendly neighbourhood is a prerequisite for a country's own peace, prosperity, and aspiration to become a major global power. This principle is universally acknowledged by Indian leadership.
    *   **Atal Bihari Vajpayee:** "You can change friends, but not neighbours." This statement emphasizes the geographical reality and the necessity of managing relationships with adjacent countries, irrespective of difficulties.
    *   **Dr. Manmohan Singh:** "The real test of a country's foreign policy is in the handling of its neighbourhood." This highlights that a nation's global standing is often judged by its ability to maintain stability and influence in its immediate region.
    *   **Narendra Modi:** "A nation's destiny is linked to its neighbourhood." This reiterates the interconnectedness of regional prosperity and security with national progress.

**GUJARAL'S DOCTRINE**

*   Formulated by I.K. Gujral, first as India's External Affairs Minister and later as Prime Minister (1997-98), this doctrine was a unilateral approach to reset relations with smaller neighbours.
*   **The Five Principles:**
    1.  With neighbours like Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, India does not ask for reciprocity but gives and accommodates what it can in good faith and trust.
    2.  No South Asian country should allow its territory to be used against the interest of another country of the region.
    3.  No country should interfere in the internal affairs of another.
    4.